The operational world of the airline industry is
constantly changing as new technology is developed and introduced, as new areas of operation are
explored, and as new regulations evolve. Airframe and engine manufacturers, airline operators, and national regulators are all major participants in these changes. A recent development than will govern nearly all European operators is the adoption of a new set of regulations called JAR-OPS 1.

Background

JAR-OPS 1 is a body of regulations adopted by the Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA) for governing the "operation of a civil aeroplane for the purpose of commercial air transportation by any operator whose principal place of
business is in a JAA Member State."

The rules generally compare to Part 121 of the U.S. Federal Aviation Regulations (FARs). The subject matter
addressed by the regulations is shown in Figure 1; the European countries that were JAA members as of October 1996 are shown in Figure 2. Approximately 122 operators of 1,200 Boeing airplanes are affected in the JAA states. These numbers represent nearly 20 percent of the total Boeing fleet worldwide and more than 20 percent of the total number of Boeing operators (Figure 2). In addition to JAA Member States, several non-European countries are adopting the JAR-OPS 1 rules.

JAR-OPS 1 calls for a compliance date of April 1, 1998, though some national regulators are asking for even
 earlier implementation dates. Adoption of JAR-OPS 1 is important to Boeing because of the assistance Boeing operators may require.

In January 1996, a Boeing Commercial Airplane Group team of experts was formed representing Flight
Operations Engineering, Aerodynamics, Payloads, Weight Engineering, Service Bulletin Engineering, Service Engineering, Flight Training, and Certification.
The team reviewed the JAR-OPS 1 regulations and identified three areas in which it felt Boeing should assist
operators.
· Airplane performance information.
· Weight (mass) and balance information.
· Airplane Operations Manual format requirements.

The team also identified some hard-ware requireents for which Boeing expertise may be especially helpful, but not required. The team was chartered to develop an assistance plan that would both meet customer requirements and most effectively use Boeing resources.

Performance Information

JAR-OPS 1 applies to all airplanes regardless of date of manufacture, and so affects all Boeing
 models as early as the 707.

Because jet transport regulations have evolved throughout the jet transport era, the types of operational
performance information produced for these airplanes, and the methodology used to derive the information, are not the same for all Boeing models. Boeing identified the airframe/engine combinations affected by the regulations and assessed the relative information support needed to provide the necessary performance information.

Required information support varied greatly, from nearly none for airplanes like the 777 with JAA certification, to significantly more for older, out-of-production airplanes.

The assessment reflects the current situation, and will be adjusted as fleets change and as other Boeing
airframe/engine combinations are introduced to European fleets.
 

 
JAR-OPS 1 Subject Matter
Subpart Subject
A Applicability
B General.
C Operator Certifications and Supervision
D Operational Procedures.
E All Weather Operations
F Performance General.
G Performance Class A
H Performance Class B
I Performance Class C
J Mass and Balance
K instruments and Equipment.
L Communication and Navigation Equipment
M Aeroplane Maintenance
N Flight Crew
O Cabin Crew
P Manuals, Logs, and Records
Q Flight and Duty Time Limitations and Rest Requirements
R Transport of Dangerous Goods by Air
S Security
Note:
Performance Class A Multi-engine, turbo prop airplanes with maximum approved seating of more than 9 passengers or maximum takeoff mass exceeding 5700 kg, and all multi-engine turbojet airplanes.
Performance Class B Propeller-driven airplanes with maximum approved seating of 9 or fewer passengers and maximum takeoff mass of 5700 kg or less.
Performance Class C Reciprocating-engine-powered airplanes with maximum approved seating of more than 9 passengers or maximum takeoff mass exceeding 5700 kg.

Figure 1. JAR-OPS 1 addresses 19 areas of commercial airplane operations in Europe.

 Additional or Modified Information Required.
JAR-OPS 1 formalizes requirements for operational performance information that, for the most part, Boeing has furnished on an advisory basis. The JAR-OPS 1 performance information required by the airlines falls into five categories:
· One-engine Inoperative Cruise Speed.
· Takeoff Line-up Allowance.
· Takeoff on Contaminated Runways.
· Climb Gradient Corrections for Bank Angles Greater Than 15 Degrees.
· Go-around Gradient Limit Weight for Decision Heights Less Than 200 Feet.

One-engine Inoperative Cruise Speed.
For takeoff alternate airport planning, JAR-OPS 1 requires operators to know engine inoperative cruise speed
capability at maximum continuous thrust. This information will be provided in the Performance Engineer's Manual (PEM) and Operations Manual.

Takeoff Line-up Allowance.
The amount of runway used to align the airplane on the runway prior to takeoff must be considered in determining performance-limited takeoff weight. Line-up allowances for all Boeing airplanes have been published in Appendix 4-1 of the Takeoff Safety Training Aid, and will also be included in the PEM and the Operations Manual. The Takeoff Safety Training Aid is available through the Boeing Customer Services and Material Support (CSMS) catalog. Boeing takeoff analysis software now includes an option to account for line-up.

Takeoff on Contaminated Runways.
The largest part of the performance information required by JAR-OPS 1 pertains to operation of airplanes on
runways that are wet or contaminated. Contaminated runways are covered or partially covered with standing wa-ter, slush, or an accumulation of snow or ice. Boeing has provided operators with information to make adjustments for these conditions.

Contaminants on the runway reduce airplane acceleration during takeoff, and wet or contaminated runways
reduce airplane braking capability during a landing or rejected takeoff.

Performance information to account for these conditions will be provided in the PEM and in the Operations
Manual. The takeoff performance software (model tables) will be modified to account for runway conditions where that functionality is not already present.

Climb Gradient Corrections for Bank Angles Greater Than 15 Degrees.
JAR-OPS 1 allows airplanes, after takeoff and when above 400 feet, to bank at angles up to 25 degrees to clear obstacles. Climb gradient decrements for calculating flight paths at bank angles up to 25 degrees will be provided in the PEM (most PEMs already include this information). In some circumstances, airspeed may need to be
adjusted to preserve stall margins, and flight paths may need to be adjusted to account for required acceleration for bank angles greater than 15 degrees. Since few situations require bank angles greater than 25 degrees and the actual circumstances are unique, Boeing will work with individual operators who request assistance in devising operational procedures for those scenarios.

Go-around Gradient Limit Weight for Decision Heights Less Than 200 Feet.
When operating in instrument conditions with decision heights less than 200 feet, JAR-OPS 1 requires the
go-around performance at the landing weight to meet a minimum climb gradient of 2.5 percent, or the published minimum performance, whichever is greater. The requirement is established for airplanes in the engine out,
landing gear retracted, go-around configuration. Boeing will provide the required information in the PEM and the Operations Manual.

Information Delivery

Boeing will develop and supply required performance information to operators on a phased delivery schedule. The priorities were established based on customer request and the amount of Boeing support required. As the
performance information is completed, a package consisting of the required PEM pages and a two-page Airplane Flight Manual (AFM) Supplement will be shipped to operators. The AFM supplement will be generic, applying to all Boeing models and operators. It will state that the required information may be found in the appropriate PEM. Airlines that request and contractually receive the Boeing Operations Manual will receive an Operations Manual Bulletin containing the additional or modified Operations Manual pages. Airlines that have Boeing takeoff analysis software will also receive the modified software at no charge.
 

Figure 2.
More than one-fifth of Boeing operators worldwide are affected by the newly adopted JAR-OPS 1.

Requirement on the Airlines

Under the JAA agreements, national regulatory authorities retain approval and enforcement powers. Airlines must receive approval of their operational information and plans from their respective authorities. An important objective in developing the Boeing assistance plan is to establish a basis on which JAA authorities can accept the
information. Another objective is to provide the necessary information to permit Boeing operators to develop their own customized operational information. Boeing does not plan to develop performance information that addresses unique requirements of individual regulatory authorities.

Weight and Balance

One obvious difference between the FAR and JAR-OPS 1 is the use of the word "mass" in place of "weight." In addition, JAR-OPS 1 directs operators to either use a fixed passenger/hand baggage allowance that is increased to 84 kilograms (l85 pounds) from 77 kilograms (170 pounds) per passenger, or to conduct passenger surveys to determine a more appropriate passenger allowance for calculating airplane takeoff mass and center of gravity. It is possible that an airplane loaded within the certified weight limitations with the old mass allowances may exceed the certified weight limitations with exactly the same load when the new mass allowances are applied. Other
possible effects of the new rule are reduced payload and reduced range. Operators should assess the effect of these new mass allowances on their fleets. Boeing Weight and Balance Manuals will continue to reference the current FAA-defined masses for standard crew/hand baggage and passenger/hand baggage. As is currently
accomplished through a master change, existing Weight and Balance Manuals can be updated at customer
request for changes in interior (such as seat pitch), galley, or cargo maximum loads to compensate for the change in standard crew and passenger masses. Loading schedules can also be updated at customer request  for changes required to incorporate the JAR-OPS 1 standard masses and other associated changes required by the customer. Increases in maximum weights (Zero Fuel Weight, Maximum Landing Weight, Maximum Takeoff Weight) up to maximum structural design weight limits are offered for those customers who wish to recover
performance (payload or range) loss.

Upon request, Boeing will assist with modifying Weight and Balance Manuals and load and trim systems through the normal change request process.

Operations Manual Format Requirements

JAR-OPS 1 requires each operator to develop an Operations Manual. The scope of this manual is much larger than that of the airplane Operations Manual provided by Boeing.

The manual required by JAR-OPS 1 is actually an airline Operations Manual. As stated in JAR-OPS 1, "The [airline] Operations Manual must contain all instructions and information necessary for operations personnel to perform their duties." The manual must include the information provided in the Boeing Operations Manual. It also must contain information from the following:
· Minimum Equipment List.
· Configuration Deviation List.
· Weight and Balance Manual.
· Loading Manual.
· Navigation Charts.
· Specific airline operating policies and procedures.
· Company training programs and training records.

JAR-OPS 1 recommends that the manual be structured in four parts (Figure 4):
· General/Basic.
· Aeroplane Operating Matters (Type Related).
· Route and Aerodrome Instructions and Information.
· Training.

Most of the required information is already available and in use today. The sources of this information are shown in Figure 4 under the "Data Source" heading.

Operators are not required to reconstruct all of this documentation when compiling the comprehensive JAR-OPS 1 Operations Manual. JAR-OPS 1 allows an operator to "take advantage of the contents of other relevant
documents." It specifically states that "Material produced by the operator for Part B [Figure 4] ... may be substi-tuted by applicable parts of the AFM [Airplane Flight Manual] or,... by an Operations Manual produced by the manufacturer of the aeroplane." The operator may "... copy the material and include it directly in the relevant part of the Manual, or... a statement to the effect that a specific manual (or parts thereof) may be used instead of the specified part of the Operations Manual."

JAR-OPS 1 requires airlines to ensure that their operations personnel have easy access to each part of the
manual that is relevant to their duties. The Boeing documents are divided and formatted to help provide relevant parts of the JAR-OPS 1 Operations Manual information to appropriate flight crew members and operations
personnel.
 
 
 

 
Section Tittle Content Data Source
Part A General/Basic Non-type-related operational poli-cies, instructions and procedures. Company operating policies and procedures.
Part B Aeroplane Operating Matters type Related Airplane type-related data, instruc-tions and procedures. Boeing Documentation, Operations Manual, MEL, CDL, Weight & Balance, etc.
Part C Route and Aerodrome Instructions and Infor-mation Instructions and information relating to communications, navigation and aerodromes. Jeppesen manuals and charts (or equivalent)
Part D Training Training Syllabi, checking programs and procedures for training and checking. Company Training Program and Records.

Figure 4. Flight crew members and operations personnel should have easy access to the four-part
JAR-OPS 1 operations manual airlines are required to develop.
 

 Flight Data Recorder and Other Equipment

Required parameters for JAR-OPS 1 Flight Data Recorders (FDR) are dependent on the date of the individual Certificate of Airworthiness of any specific airplane. (The combinations of requirements are too complex to sum-marize in this article.) For existing airplanes, operators are responsible for determining the compliance status of their fleets. Boeing is prepared to provide technical assistance, when requested, to help operators bring their
airplanes into compliance. Beginning April 1, 1998, Boeing plans to deliver airplanes equipped with FDRs that meet JAR-OPS 1 requirements.

JAR-OPS 1 and FAR requirements differ slightly on the subject of emergency locator transmitters, crew protective breathing equipment, crash axes and crowbars, break-in points, and megaphones. Operators are responsible for determining their own state of compliance.

What's Next?

Boeing met with interested airlines in Frankfurt, Germany in June 1996 to develop a plan to help airlines comply with JAR-OPS 1. Boeing is now working to produce the required information and software in a timely manner. Customers who require additional assistance should contact Boeing as soon as possible so that the necessary resources can be allocated and the work can be scheduled.

Operators may obtain a copy of the JAR-OPS 1 document from the JAA by writing to the address at right:

Performance Effects of contaminated
Runways

A runway is considered to be contaminated if more than 25 percent of the surface to be used is covered by standing water or slush greater than .125 inch (3 mm) deep, or by an accumulator of snow or ice. A runway may also be considered contaminated if, regardless of the percentage covered, contaminant are on the portion of the runway where the high-speed portion of the takeoff roll will occur.

Contaminants affect airplane performance by reducing takeoff acceleration through displacement and impinge-ment drag (figure A). Displacement drag is the retarding force produced when the tires of the airplane “plow” trough the contaminant. The force is proportional to the density and depth of the contaminant, and the square of the velocity of the airplane. The retarding force decreases as the airplane begins to hydroplane on the slush or water, and continues to decrease as the airplane rotates and begins to lift off the runway. Figure B shows how takeoff forces vary with speed. Impingement drag is the retarding force generated when contaminant is thrown up in the air and strikes the airframe as the airplane plows through it. Tests conducted by the U.S. National Aeronau-tics and Space Administration (NASA) prove that the results of this action are not negligible; actual experience has shown damage to the airplane when contaminant depth is greater than .50 inch (13 mm.). The Boeing
recommendation is to avoid takeoff when contaminant depth exceeds this measurement.

Contaminated or slippery runways affect airplane operations in two ways. First, takeoff weight must be decreased to adjust for reduced acceleration during the takeoff run and reduced braking if a stop is necessary. Second, V1 speed must be reduced to accommodate reduced airplane braking capability in case of rejected takeoff.

Runways that are slippery or wet, but not “contaminated”, do not affected airplane acceleration but can reduce airplane braking capability.

Braking capability is measured by airplane braking coefficient (mbrake). Braking force is equal to mbrake multiplied by the weight on the wheels (weight minus lift). Above hydroplaning speed, even with the total airplane weight on the wheels, the airplane braking coefficient is very small. Figure C shows how airplane braking coefficient on
contaminated runways varies with airplane speed when compared to braking coefficient on dry runways.

Weight reductions when operating on contaminated runways can be significant. For example, a 767-200 with CF6-80C2B2 engines on a 6,000 foot (1,829 m) runway has a field-length limited weight of 300,000 pounds (136,078 kg). If the runway is covered with .50 inch (13 mm) of slush or standing water, the field length limited weight is reduced by 44,000 pounds (19,958 kg).

What about JAR-OPS 2, 3 and 4?

Does the existence of JAR-OPS 1 regulations mean other JAR-OPS regulations exist, too, such as JAR-OPS 2, 3 and 4? And if they do, what do they contain?

JAR-OPS 1 and JAR-OPS 3 regulations govern the operation of commercial air transportation by airplanes and helicopters, respectively. JAR-OPS 2 and 4 will govern the operation of general aviation airplanes and general aviation helicpters, respectively. Work on JAR-OPS 2 and 4 will begin when JAR-OPS 1 and 3 are implemented in 1998.